Smoke Signals
1. Who Is American Indian?
There are millions of people with
Indian ancestry, but that does not
make them American Indians in the
eyes of the federal government. The
federal government considers some
one American Indian if he or she be
longs to a federally recognized tribe.
Individual tribes have the exclusive
right to determine their own mem
bership. Tribal governments for
mally list their members, who must
meet specific criteria for enrollment.
Some tribes require a person trace
half of his or her lineage to the tribe,
while others only require proof of
descent.
2 Where did American Indians
come from originally?
Many anthropologists believe that
Indians travelled about 35,000
years ago across a land bridge span
ning the Bering Strait from Asia to
North America. Most tribes have
their own creation story. Many be
lieve that Native people originated
on this continent.
3 Why are Native people referred
to as Indians?
Indigenous people in the United
States were first referred to as Indi
ans because Columbus believed he
had reached the East Indies when
he touched the shores of North
America. Today, many people pre
fer to call themselves American In
dian to avoid stereotypes associated
with "Indian."
4. Which Is correct: American
Indian or Native American?
Either term is generally acceptable,
although individuals may have a
preference. Native American was
first used in the United States for
American Indians and Alaska Na
tives. 5. How many American Indians
and Alaska Natives are there?
There are 2.3 million, according to
U.S. Census estimates for 1997.
They represent only roughly one
percent of the population. (This
number is expected to increase after
the Census 2000 is complete.) Be
fore Europeans arrived in North
America, Native Americans may
have numbered as many as 10 mil
lion. By the time colonists began
keeping records, the population was
substantially less, ravaged by war,
famine, forced labor, and disease.
Also, there are many different tribal
populations in Canada as well as the
United States.
6. Are Native Hawailans
considered American Indians?
No, Native Hawaiians trace their lin
eage and language to Polynesians,
including Tahitians, Maoris, and Sa
moans. Starting in 2000, the fed
eral government will recognize Na
tive Hawaiian and Pacific Islanders
as a distinct group. Native Hawai
ians often unite with Native Ameri
cans over issues of self-governance
and self-determination.
7. What Is a tribe?
Originally, tribes were a society of
people bound by blood ties, family
relations, and a common language.
They also had their own religion and
political system. When members of
different tribes were forced to live
together on reservations, some new
tribal groupings were formed.
G . How many tribes are there?
In 1998, there were 554 federally rec
ognized tribes in the United States,
according to the Bureau of Indian
Affairs. This includes 226 villages
in Alaska.
9. OK, there are a lot of different
tribes. But aren't American Indians
pretty much the same as a group?
Indian tribes are all different, just as,
for example, the Irish and Italian.
Individual tribes have their own cul
ture, language, and tradition. Many
groups may be strangers to one an
other. Some were once enemies.
10. Which Is the largest tribe?
With a 1990 population of 308,132,
Cherokees are the largest U.S. tribe.
Most live in Oklahoma, though more
than 5,000 Cherokees live on their
reservation in North Carolina.
11 Are Indian tribes and Indian
nations the same?
Yes. The federally recognized tribes
are considered self-governing or
sovereign nations by Congress.
The federal government deals with
tribes as political entities, not as per
sons of a particular race.
12 Can any tribe be federally
recognized?
A rigorous application process deter
mines federal recognition. Many
nations were recognized by treaty
making in the 18th and 19th centu
ries, though several groups are pe
titioning for recognition today. (The
Grand Ronde Tribe won its recogni
tion in 1983.) In 1998, there were
14 tribes under active consideration .
for recognition.
13. What powers do the tribes
hold?
They have nationhood status, enjoy
ing the powers of government, ex
cept those expressly taken away by
Congress or overruled by the Su
preme Court. The United States rec
ognized the tribes' right to form their
own government, determine mem
bership, administer justice, raise
taxes, establish business, and ex
clude people from reservations.
14 . What is the tribal council?
The tribe's governing body is usu
ally referred to as the tribal council,
and is elected by the adult members
of the tribe. Heading the council is
one elected chairperson, president,
chief, or governor who is the recog
nized leader. The council performs
the legislative aspects of tribal gov
ernment. 15 Are reservations and tribal
governments the same?
No. Tribal governments existed long
before reservations were established.
However, governing authority on
reservations is the tribal council. In
cases where different tribes share a
reservation, they often separate gov
ernments, as the Shoshone and
Arapaho do in Wyoming.
16 What is a reservation?
Indian reservations are areas of land
reserved by the federal government
as permanent tribal homelands. To
day, there are 314 reservations.
17. Why Is it called a reservation?
The term originates from the federal
government's act of reserving land
for federal purposes. In the United
States, there are two kinds of reser
vations: Indian and military.
18 Do all American Indians live
on reservations?
No. More than 60 percent live away
from reservations, according to Cen
sus reports.
19 now much land do American
Indians hold?
About 56 million acres in reserva
tions and trust land. The Navajo
Reservation is the largest, number
ing 16 million acres and occupying
parts of Arizona, Utah, and New
Mexico. Many smaller reservations
are less than 1,000 acres.
20. What Is trust land?
Land held by the United States for
the use and benefit of American In
dian tribes. Virtually all trust land
is located in or near reservations.
Tribes also have the ability to pur
chase land and to petition the fed
eral government to hold it in trust,
protecting the land from encroach
ment and seizure.
21 . What is Indian Country?
Indian Country is a legal term used
in Title 18 of the U.S. Code. It
broadly defines federal and tribal ju
risdiction in crimes affecting Indians
on reservations. But it also has
popular usage, describing reserva
tions and areas with American In
dian populations.
22 . What is tribal sovereignty?
Just like states, tribes have at
tributes of sovereignty to govern
their own territory and internal af
fairs. The status of tribes as self
governing nations is affirmed and
upheld by treaties, case law and the
Constitution. Legal scholars explain
that tribes are inherently sovereign,
meaning they do not trace their ex
istence to the United States.
23. What is the government-to-government
relationship?
It is a federal (and sometimes state)
policy expressing how the United
States interacts with tribes. It re
quires the United States to assess
federal actions affecting Indian
tribes and to consult with tribes
about those actions.
24. now are tribes exercising
their status as sovereign nations?
In New Mexico, for example, the
Isleta Pueblo tribe is requiring the
city of Albuquerque to abide by its
water claim standards, which are
stricter and costlier than state re
quirements. In the Pacific North
west, tribes partner with state and
federal governments to co-manage
fisheries and protect salmon stock.
25 What is sovereign immunity?
It is the ability of a government to
define the terms on which they can
be sued. Tribes have invoked sover
eign immunity in suits that chal
lenge their authority to regulate land
use. There have been recent efforts