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About Smoke signals. (Grand Ronde, Or.) 19??-current | View Entire Issue (Jan. 15, 1999)
Smoke Signals 1. Who Is American Indian? There are millions of people with Indian ancestry, but that does not make them American Indians in the eyes of the federal government. The federal government considers some one American Indian if he or she be longs to a federally recognized tribe. Individual tribes have the exclusive right to determine their own mem bership. Tribal governments for mally list their members, who must meet specific criteria for enrollment. Some tribes require a person trace half of his or her lineage to the tribe, while others only require proof of descent. 2 Where did American Indians come from originally? Many anthropologists believe that Indians travelled about 35,000 years ago across a land bridge span ning the Bering Strait from Asia to North America. Most tribes have their own creation story. Many be lieve that Native people originated on this continent. 3 Why are Native people referred to as Indians? Indigenous people in the United States were first referred to as Indi ans because Columbus believed he had reached the East Indies when he touched the shores of North America. Today, many people pre fer to call themselves American In dian to avoid stereotypes associated with "Indian." 4. Which Is correct: American Indian or Native American? Either term is generally acceptable, although individuals may have a preference. Native American was first used in the United States for American Indians and Alaska Na tives. 5. How many American Indians and Alaska Natives are there? There are 2.3 million, according to U.S. Census estimates for 1997. They represent only roughly one percent of the population. (This number is expected to increase after the Census 2000 is complete.) Be fore Europeans arrived in North America, Native Americans may have numbered as many as 10 mil lion. By the time colonists began keeping records, the population was substantially less, ravaged by war, famine, forced labor, and disease. Also, there are many different tribal populations in Canada as well as the United States. 6. Are Native Hawailans considered American Indians? No, Native Hawaiians trace their lin eage and language to Polynesians, including Tahitians, Maoris, and Sa moans. Starting in 2000, the fed eral government will recognize Na tive Hawaiian and Pacific Islanders as a distinct group. Native Hawai ians often unite with Native Ameri cans over issues of self-governance and self-determination. 7. What Is a tribe? Originally, tribes were a society of people bound by blood ties, family relations, and a common language. They also had their own religion and political system. When members of different tribes were forced to live together on reservations, some new tribal groupings were formed. G . How many tribes are there? In 1998, there were 554 federally rec ognized tribes in the United States, according to the Bureau of Indian Affairs. This includes 226 villages in Alaska. 9. OK, there are a lot of different tribes. But aren't American Indians pretty much the same as a group? Indian tribes are all different, just as, for example, the Irish and Italian. Individual tribes have their own cul ture, language, and tradition. Many groups may be strangers to one an other. Some were once enemies. 10. Which Is the largest tribe? With a 1990 population of 308,132, Cherokees are the largest U.S. tribe. Most live in Oklahoma, though more than 5,000 Cherokees live on their reservation in North Carolina. 11 Are Indian tribes and Indian nations the same? Yes. The federally recognized tribes are considered self-governing or sovereign nations by Congress. The federal government deals with tribes as political entities, not as per sons of a particular race. 12 Can any tribe be federally recognized? A rigorous application process deter mines federal recognition. Many nations were recognized by treaty making in the 18th and 19th centu ries, though several groups are pe titioning for recognition today. (The Grand Ronde Tribe won its recogni tion in 1983.) In 1998, there were 14 tribes under active consideration . for recognition. 13. What powers do the tribes hold? They have nationhood status, enjoy ing the powers of government, ex cept those expressly taken away by Congress or overruled by the Su preme Court. The United States rec ognized the tribes' right to form their own government, determine mem bership, administer justice, raise taxes, establish business, and ex clude people from reservations. 14 . What is the tribal council? The tribe's governing body is usu ally referred to as the tribal council, and is elected by the adult members of the tribe. Heading the council is one elected chairperson, president, chief, or governor who is the recog nized leader. The council performs the legislative aspects of tribal gov ernment. 15 Are reservations and tribal governments the same? No. Tribal governments existed long before reservations were established. However, governing authority on reservations is the tribal council. In cases where different tribes share a reservation, they often separate gov ernments, as the Shoshone and Arapaho do in Wyoming. 16 What is a reservation? Indian reservations are areas of land reserved by the federal government as permanent tribal homelands. To day, there are 314 reservations. 17. Why Is it called a reservation? The term originates from the federal government's act of reserving land for federal purposes. In the United States, there are two kinds of reser vations: Indian and military. 18 Do all American Indians live on reservations? No. More than 60 percent live away from reservations, according to Cen sus reports. 19 now much land do American Indians hold? About 56 million acres in reserva tions and trust land. The Navajo Reservation is the largest, number ing 16 million acres and occupying parts of Arizona, Utah, and New Mexico. Many smaller reservations are less than 1,000 acres. 20. What Is trust land? Land held by the United States for the use and benefit of American In dian tribes. Virtually all trust land is located in or near reservations. Tribes also have the ability to pur chase land and to petition the fed eral government to hold it in trust, protecting the land from encroach ment and seizure. 21 . What is Indian Country? Indian Country is a legal term used in Title 18 of the U.S. Code. It broadly defines federal and tribal ju risdiction in crimes affecting Indians on reservations. But it also has popular usage, describing reserva tions and areas with American In dian populations. 22 . What is tribal sovereignty? Just like states, tribes have at tributes of sovereignty to govern their own territory and internal af fairs. The status of tribes as self governing nations is affirmed and upheld by treaties, case law and the Constitution. Legal scholars explain that tribes are inherently sovereign, meaning they do not trace their ex istence to the United States. 23. What is the government-to-government relationship? It is a federal (and sometimes state) policy expressing how the United States interacts with tribes. It re quires the United States to assess federal actions affecting Indian tribes and to consult with tribes about those actions. 24. now are tribes exercising their status as sovereign nations? In New Mexico, for example, the Isleta Pueblo tribe is requiring the city of Albuquerque to abide by its water claim standards, which are stricter and costlier than state re quirements. In the Pacific North west, tribes partner with state and federal governments to co-manage fisheries and protect salmon stock. 25 What is sovereign immunity? It is the ability of a government to define the terms on which they can be sued. Tribes have invoked sover eign immunity in suits that chal lenge their authority to regulate land use. There have been recent efforts
