Slave deck of the barque "W ild fire ," captured by the U.S. steam er " M o h a w k ," is from a w oodcut
that appeared in an A m erican newspaper circa 1860 A steady flo w of forced im m igrants helped rein
force and keep alive an A frican tradition in Am erican music (The B ettm an Archive)
N e w p o rt G a rd n e r (1746 - c. 1826) is one notable
example. At the age o f fourteen, he was sold to Calib
Gardner in Newport, Rhode Island. Early evidencing a
propensity for music, he was allowed by Mrs. Gardner
to study with a singing master after teaching himself to
read. His superior intelligence enabled him to quickly
learn the rudiments o f reading and writing music. He
became a teacher o f a fair-sized singing school in the
City, and was able to purchase his freedom in 1791. He
then opened his own music school and composed many
tunes. One o f his anthems was performed in Boston in
1825.
During this century, one o f the more unique forms o f
entertainmeni that the slaves performed for themselves
(at first) was called the Jubliee. Generally, it was held on
Sunday on the plantations, and it helped to relieve the
tensions and tedious ignom iny o f the w ork week.
However, the high sp irits, infectious hum or and
"p rim itiv e ” steps afforded the master and his guests a
different form o f amusement. At this time, the slaves
poked fun at their master’ s ways, attitudes and culture
in an "in n o c e n t" manner that was reminiscent o f the
bards in that fa r-o ff home in A frica . Apparently the
meanings were obscure enough for the slaveholders not
to recognize themselves. Here, improvisations and em­
bellishments on standard themes were common. In ad­
dition, original songs were extemporaneously composed
to fit an immediate situation. “ Call and response,” a
form which became common to gospel and spiritual
music, with the soloist giving evidence to his or her im ­
portance, indicated the great com plexity o f A frica n
music, and the seemingly unlim ited skills the artists
possessed.
Typically, the whites would adapt this form into a
caricature o f the Jubliee, and take it on stage in the
nineteenth century. Thus, the ministrel, with its cork-
blackened faces, exaggerated dialects and insulting buf-
fonery, was born.
-A N T E B E L L U M SO UTH
PERIOD 1800 1865
After America fought for and won its freedom from
Britain’ s tyrannical laws, it systematically set about to
p ro s titu te its D eclaration o f Independence, by
procla im in g in A rtic le 1, Section 2 (3) o f the C on­
stitution that “ ...three fifth s o f all other persons...”
shall be excluded from enjoying the emancipation so
recently won. This statement indicates that, although
slaves were considered to be a bit above an animal, they
were still less than human. To further address and rein­
force slavery as an institution. A rticle 4, Section 2 (3)
states: A/o person held to .service or tabor in one state,
under the law thereof, escaping into another, shall, in
consequence o f any law o r reg ula tion therein, be
discharged fro m such service o r labor, but s h a ll be
delivered up on claim o f the party to whom such service
or tabor may be due.
Thus, even a free man was not safe; it was his word
against a white man’ s that he was not to be returned to
bondage. In the decade from 1790, when the first U.S.
»
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Portland Observer Section II February 28.1681 Page 6
census was taken, to 1860, the last census before the
C ivil War, the Black population increased from some
750,00 to over 4!4 million. Blacks constituted 19.3% o f
the total U.S. population in 1790, and 14.1% in 1860.
Dramatic increases in white immigration served to lower
the proportionate increase in the Black population.
In 1790 about 12% o f all Blacks were free, but by
1860 the percentage dropped to about 8%. Roughly half
o f free Blacks were found in the North. Those who were
in the south most often were concentrated in the urban
centers o f New Orleans, C harleston, B altim ore,
Washington, Richmond and Petersburg.
Slaveholders were a small percentage o f the white
population; fewer than 25%. O f this number most had
less than twenty slaves.
Although a Congressional Act abolished the slave
trade, on January 1, 1808 the invention, fifteen years
earlier, o f the cotton gin revitalized the need for slaves
in a way that the founding fathers never visualized. Cot­
ton was king, and the agrarian south became more
determined to circumvent a useless law.
There was little to ameliorate the spirits o f the slaves
during these dolorous days. Each tedious day was
replaced by another; it was inevitable that music would
continue to be an important focus in their lives. Often,
the insatiable need for beauty and order in a Sisyphean
life could only be produced in song.
No where was this more evident than in the fields.
Many o f the work songs that the field hands sang or
Bill Nickleberry and
Max Pittman practice what we
preach...conservation. And save
PGE customers about $110,000 a year.
This year. Bill, Willamette
Center building Manager, and
Max. the Center s Superin­
tendent. along with the rest ot
the PGE Watt Watching staff
will help save about $110.000
through conservation mea­
sures being practiced at the
Willamette Center building
complex. PGE s headquarters
Bill and his co-workers are
putting to use many of the
conservation techniques
we ve been advising custom­
ers about for more than
eight years The conservation
techniques in use include
thermopane glass windows,
insulation and weather-
striDping Since the Center
was first occupied, the air in
the building has been heated
mainly by body heat, office
machine heat and the heat
from overhead lights
As a result of their efforts
and by making more efficient
use of construction pre­
planning. Bill, Max and
fellow employees and
tenants have been able to
reduce the energy use at the
Willamette Center by 12 per
cent, or almost 3 million
kilowatt-hours At today s
rates, that s a savings of
almost $110,000 a year
Savings that are more impor­
tant now than ever before
Electricity costs are going
up everywhere, it's not just
here Both private and public
utilities throughout the
country are facing soaring
costs Higher equipment
costs, fuel costs and interest
rates have everyone on a
tight budget And the rapid
increase of new residential
and business customers in
the region is another strain
on existing supply
But, at PGE. we are
fortunate to have people like
Bill and Max working hard to
keep costs down for
customers wherever they
can People who care
FGE