Àn Associated Negro Press
Publication
ftortlattii Ituiutm'
Serving the Pacific
Northwest
Oregon’s atyegro Weekly
PORTLAND. OREGON. NOVEMBER 30. 1945.
VOLUME 2
PRICE 10c
NUMBER 20
Truman K . Gibson Resigns Post
As Civilian Aide to W ar Secretary
Mr. Truman K. Gibson, Jr., for three years Civilian Aide to the Secretary of War,
has resigned to return to the practice of law in Chicago, Illinois, the Honorable Robert
P. Patterson, Secretary of War, announced today.
In accepting Mr. Gibson’s resignation Mr. Patterson wrote him:
“In view of your five years’ service you are entitled to have your resignation ac
cepted, but I assure you that I regret to sej you leave.
“You have served your country in a critical time with marked ability and with
wholehearted devotion. In behalf of the War Department I express our deep apprecia
tion for what you have achieved. I hope that we can count on your assistance as prob
lems come up in the future. With your background of experience, your advice will be
of particular value.”
Mr. Gibson, in his letter of resignation, had commented as follows on the War De
partment Negro policies:
“As a result of the combined
efforts of your and Mr. McCloy’s
offices, reat progress has been
m ade in the treatm ent and util
ization of Negro personnel in the
Arm y since the inception of the
expansion program in 1940. This
progress has produced profound
changes in the attitudes of many
field officers. However, t h i s
progress and the attitude changes
em phasize the rusty condition of
the tools w ith which we began
our work in 1940. Even now the
situation is still far from being
ideal. The Arm y’s inflexible Ne
gro policy, developed shortly aft
er 1915, had continued too long.
This policy was based in a large
part on the unscientific view that
Negroes possessed traits and hab
its that m ade the m inherently in
ferior to whites and that there
fore they could not and should
not be used except in limited
num bers as enlisted men and of
ficers in the Army.
“This inflexible policy and the
attitudes held by m any about Ne
groes m ade for a static condition
in the Army. W hen the Selec
tive Service and Training Act of
1940 required the utilization of
large num bers of Negroes, many
of them w ith superior education
and training, the Army was un
prepared to deal with the situa
tion. As a result the W ar De
partm ent has had to resort to
various expediencies in order to
cope with more tthan 700,000 Ne
groes that have been in the’ serv
ice since 1940.
“There is every indication that
the type of planning for Negroes
that occurred prior to 1940 has
been discarded. There is, there
fore, much hope for the future.
The approach to the problem of
using Negroes is no longer based
on the assum ption that they are
inherently inferior to other sol
diers. The approach now is to
determ ine the best possible m ili
tary usage of the lOg of our pop
ulation that may be a determ in
ing factor in any future w ar in
which this country is engaged.
The policies that will m ake for
the best m ilitary usage will be
supported by a nation united in
the conviction that the burdens
of m ilitary participation are be
ing equitably distributed over all
of our population and th at the
responsibilities of m ilitary serv
ice are being assigned on the
basis of ability.
“W hen policies are f i n a l l y
adopted that will achieve the best
possible m ilitary utilization of all
segm ents'of our population, there
will be little doubt in the minds
of a m ajority of Negroes that a
system of U niversal M i l i t a r y
Training should be supported.”
During his five years in the
W ar Departm ent, Mr. Gibson in
spected nearly every m ajor Army
installation in the United States
and in the M editerranean and
European Theaters of Operation
abroad. He was aw arded the
m edal for M erit by President T ru
m an in Septem ber, 1945. The
Medal was presented to him by
retiring Secretary of W ar Stim-
son in a ceremony attended by
W ar Departm ent officials who
had worked v. ith him.
Mr. Gibson is a graduate of the
U niversity of Chicago where he
obtained both his college and law
degrees.
THE JOLLY JOAN RESTAURANT
POSTS SIGN BARRING NEGROES
Large signs w ith the wording, about having these signs removed.
“We Cater to W hite trade only” This was a few months ago. At
have begun m aking their appear that time Mr. Riley stated that
ance again following a short pe there was no law #to prevent such
riod of absence when the Colored signs being posted. He was ask
Tax Payers League of Multnomah ed if there was not a law rela
County w ent into action a few tive to ‘inciting to riot’? After
months ago. The most prom inent answ ering in the affirm ative, he
of these signs is at present in the was asked if these insulting signs
largest restaurant in Portland, the came under that law. He said he
JOLLY JOAN restaturant locat would get an opinion from the
ed in the heart of downtown Port city attorney but t h a t in the
land at S. W. Broadway and meantime he would have the po-
W ashington Streetts. This is not lice departm ent canvass places
in the deep South but right here j having these signs and request
in the largest city in the s ta te ; their removal. We have never
of Oregon.
heard w hat the city attorneys
Rumors of other places of eating opinion was on the subject but
in Portland having identical signs for a while the signs disappeared
is going the rounds. In the past I from most of the places. Now
two weeks there has been at least the signs are reappearing and it
six different places. But the sign is tim e to get a decisive answ er
in Jolly Joans is not a rumor. j from Mr. Riley or somebody.
It was photographed by a staff
photographer of the PORTLAND
INQUIRER this week. S o m e
m onths ago when a reporter for
this paper turned in this story ,
it was given the lie by another A i l a f i f a | | \ F S
publication in which it stated
U JL nJ
that the m anager of J O L L Y ATLANTA—(ANP) — Thirteen
JOANS said that he would never Negroes took over duties U s t
place such a sign in is es,a i wee|c as s^aff personnel in the
lishment. To forestall any de
office of service.
the U nited States
nial on the part of the manage- local
Employment
ment or any of his Jn en d s the The members of th staff had
PORTLAND INQUIRER had the ^
for tWQ weekg for
s‘gl1 p^otograp e ’
-
their special duties under Capt.
The Colored Tax Payers League Edward j Bryson who is now
sent a delegation to see if Mayor ^ supervjsor for USES.
Eail Riley wou
a any i ^ Milton J. W hite, new m anager
of the colored division, a graduate
of Morehouse college, had been
employed as interview er for Bell
I A ircraft corporation during the
war period.
Two senior interview s are: G.
W. Johnson, senior interview er in
charge of placem ent a graduate
of
Am herst college, and Lawrence
LONDON— (ANP)—T h e P a r . - Williams,
a form er student of M or
African congress which is being ris
college,
in charge of registra
held in M anchester, England and tion.
'
which has been widely adver Four em ploym
ent interview ers
tised in Negro newspapers in the responsible
for
and
United States, has attracted but placem ent are: registration
Thomas
Massey
little
London either
.
., atenion
, in press
-
and Courtland
Morehouse;
from
the
daily
nor . . . from
. Grigsby,
_ . , Green,
.. the more
.
..
Joseph
of
Fisk,
and G.
representative Africans F. J R. 1 Key, - of £ Howard
; university,
located here.
er employe w ith the Ful
A spokesman from the widely a ton form
County D epartm ent of Pub-
i said that the league _______
W elfare. Clerks include
Miss
pies
was not . i lie
• i j w ith the ° adventure
nA
Thelm a Beavers,
of , . Morris . t
associated
_
.
. . . he
,
. C „, “had , , been called
„.I j i Brown; ’ Mrs.
Lyons
of
which
. Juanita
, Mrs.
* together
.. , by said,
„
Reid
s
Business
college,
and
a group of left-wing !
„,
, * . _
persons in the North of England Faustlnf, Sherar? ‘ ° Lewls Busl'
who have not even put upon their ne)ls
c0 veterans
e®e’ e section
ro1, ' . is manned
propaganda leaflet the names of by The John
R. Smith, of Morris
the summoning organiations.”
Brown, and W illiam Sullivan,
This spokesman said further: “I Morehouse
graduate.
have seen only one reference to The section
by the all
the m eeting in the Daily Herald colored staff is served
di
and one in the News Chronicle. vision. Its duty not is a the claims
offering
O therw ise as far as I am able to of jobs and furnishing of appli
say, the responsible press in this cants with blanks for unem ploy
country has taken no notice there ment compensation benefits.
of.
“You will, no doubt,” he con
tinued, “get flam ing news about
it because George Pad more, well
known correspondent, who is
identified with those elements, is
one of its moving lights. But
the parties concerned have not so COLUMBIA, S. c. — (ANP) —
far achieved the reputation for Thirteen year old Weldon DuBois
sanity and balance in this coun Dixon, son of the Rev. and Mrs.
try which are essential if their R. C. Dixon appeared in recital
proceedings are to be taken seri before large audience in Carnegie
ously.
hall in New York City, the par
New Lane President
“I have no doubt they will do ents reported this week, m arking
JACKSON, Tenn.— <ANP)—Dr. some good in arousing the au the first such honor to come to
D. H. Yarbrough is the new presi thorities to the fact that there are a youthful South Carolinian.
dent of Lane college. He suc- agitators for a better deal for our Young Dixon, whose mastering
ceens the late Dr. Jam es F. Lane, people and for this reason per of the piano has astounded citiz-
son of the founder. Bishop Isaac haps the League of Colored peo- i ens here for some ime, is a spe
Lane.
pies and other more balanced or- cial student in the Caputo Con-
Dr. Yarbough was a professor ganiations will g e t a better hear- servatory of Musical arts in New
of sociology at W ilberforce uni- jng I therefore do not condemn York City, which sponsored his
versity, on leave of absence with them and hope they will achieve appearances on Oct. 31 and Nov.
the Red Cross service overseas, some reasonable findings which 4. His formal debut as a con-
He is a doctor of philosophy from may even command attention by cert artist is scheduled for the
the University of Pittsburgh. |th e powers that be.”
, early part of 1946.
13 Employed with
Says Pan-African
Congress Not
Representative
S. C. Prodigy in
Cernegie Reciial
Southern Life RECORD CROWD EXPECTED L0CÀL RESIDENT RECEIVES
Depends on TO SEE JOE LOUIS HERE IN AN INTIMIDATING LETTER
Negro Workers EXHIRITION ON DECEMBER 11th
ATLANTA— (ANP)—The toil of The appearance of H eavyw eight1 Next was to overcome a ‘bad
Negro workers constitute the basis Champion Joe Louis in Portland decision’ he had received in a
for the easy life whitesoutherners on the night of Tuesday, Decem previous fight with Ray Acosta
enjoy.
ber 11th is going to be a sellout by flooring Acosta for the count
The story of the Negro worker’s if inquiries concerning seats is early in their scheduled ten-
major role in southern economy to be considered. Already hun round melee. He then took on old
was recently disclosed through dreds of people have tried to re ‘W ar Horse’ Leo“TheLion” T urn
W. Hardin Hughes’ article. "Eco serve seats to see the champion al er and coralled a decision by giv
nomic Value of the Negro to the though no opponent has b e e n ing Leo the boxing lesson of the
South”, by the Southern Regional named as yet. Or rather oppon year. He has been mentioned as
council. Hughes wrote:
ents as Jhe champion is to box a possible opponent for Kahut,
“For three centuries, the Negro two different leather pushers over but wily George Moore, Millers
has been an im portant factor in a four round route each m aking manager has other plans for this
the economic development and a total of eight rounds. It ap great little fighter who hails from
m aintenance of the south. As a parently does not m atter who Joe Kansas City. Regardless who his
slave, while occupying a status is to box as long as the public opponent is on the night of De
little better than that of a beast sees him in action. But, there cember 11th we bet he will wish
of burden, the Negro made pos is always the chance of some he was the little man who wasn't
sible the development of the thing happening although t h a t there after coming in contact with
southern plantation, the wealth chance is about 10,000 to one. The the lethal dukes of Mr. Roy Mil-
and ease of the Southern gentle bouts are to be exhibition bouts | ler.
man,” and, indirectly, contributed but, just suppose some am bitious , This will be one of the best fight
to the m aterial prosperity of the young fighter gets a notion in ! cards of the year and a record
entire nation. As a freedman, the his head to try to K.O. the breaking crowd will not be a sur-
Negro continued to render an ‘Cham p’. We think we will see I prise.
abundance of cheap physical labor the fur fly and also the am bitious j
----------------------------
without which even a partial re young fighter. However, there
habilitation of the south would is always that possibility that the
have been delayed. The old-time next heavyw eight champ may
southern aristocracy, stripped of now be an ‘unknown’ and why
it» power and influence by the couldn’t he be found in Portland.
‘w ar betw een the States,’ and Improbable? Yes, but not im
holding to a m aster-slave ideology possible.
WEISSENBURG, Germ any —
of hum an labor, found its econom On the same card with Joe on (ANP)— The 969th Field Artillery
ic problems most difficult.
December 11th Portland fans will battalion, stationed here, was
W hites Avoid Work
see Roy M iller in action against scheduled to perform security
"Only gradually, over a period an opponent as yet unnamed also. guard at the trial of the Germ an
of 75 years, has the southerner's Roy M iller has m a d e himself war criminals starting at N ürn
conception of work been modified. popular with Portland fight fans berg, Nov. 20.
The belief thaVJDhysica 1 labor is by winning every bout that he The 969th distinguished itself
an affliction a n c ^ di ïrace to be has had here. First by handing at St. Lo, a turning point in the
avoided*, whilo- nc.' a
Irviag r- Tbv.U<. i Proctor a teqtfl
mh allied _ offensive from the weit,
held as formerly, is stffl a retard-1 round K.O. after
er outboxing and land again at Bastogne, stonewall
ing hangover from the days of outfighting Proctor all the way. | in the B attle of the Bulge.
slavery. Even now, were the
Negro’s physical services suddenly
removed from the south and the
colored people ‘sent back’ to some
distant region designated by the
race-baiting politicians, a chaotic
condition of affairs would certain PHILADELPH1A — (ANP) —- sorship of future legitim ate pro
ly fojlow. Millions of w hite folk, Charging that the play, “Strange ductions here.
confronted with the necessity of Fruit", is an “open attack on the Vice president of the M inisterial
physical toil, would, no doubt, evangelical church” the Rev. M el union of Philadelphia and vi
throw up their hands in despair vin M. Forney, pastor of the Third cinity, an interdenominatoional
and pray for the return of the Baptist church here, declared group, and successor to his father,
Negro. The ‘grandeur’ of living Sunday that he would ask Mayor who died, in 1943, as general sec
and the much-boasted ‘southern Bernard Samuel to band the Pro retary of the Loar’s Day alliance,
hospitality’ would, w ithout the duction here.
he indicated that his stand in re
assistance of the Negro, become "I hope that an aroused Christ gard to the play would b e 'su p
events of the past.
ian conscience will d r i v e this ported at the weekly meeting of
“Not only the south, but the show out of Philadelphia t h i s the Baptist and M ethodist con
entire nation, is the recipient of week” Rev. Forney said in a ferences here.
essential benefits from the Ne sermon at his church. “I intend
gro's participation in the economic to call this m atter to the atten
life of America. T hirteen million tion of M ayor Samuel, and know
people, one-lOth of our produc ing the m ayor as I do, I be
tive labor and consuming a some lieve he w ill act in his official
w hat sm aller proportion of our to capacity and close the show”.
tal production, must be considered The play opened last Monday WASHINGTON—(ANP)— Two
an economic asset. The purchasing at the Forrest theatre, and is famous institutions, Carver hall
power of the Negro population, scheduled to continue through and Slowe hall, again are on the
in spite of relatively low stndards this coming week prior to its New m arket for sale, according to in
formation from the Federal P ub
of living is enormous.
York premiere.
“As long as 1920, the Negro Mr. Forney, son of the late Rev. lic Housing authority, which
purchasing power in this country, j Dr. William B. Forney, militant moved last week to liquidate its
as estim ated by the U nited States leader of th eLords Day alliance $53,000,000 Defense Homes corp
departm ent of commerce, was $2,- 0f Pennsylvania, asserted t h a t oration holdings, six huge modern
000,000,000. At that time, the Ne “we allow too many of the de projects in W ashington.
gro population was approxim ately praved minds of moral degene Reported for sale prior to this
10 and a half million. In 1942, the rates to affect our t h i n k i n g last announcement, several in
13,000,000 Negroes in the United through their books and plays. terested groups had looked over
States spent in the neighborhood “We m ust put a stop to this Carver and Slowe halls, both of
of $4,500,000,000 for consumers practice,” he said, “for if we listen which have national reputations.
goods and services, an am ount to depraved minds we will have a But neither group was satisf:»d
two and a half tim es as great as depraved society and a moral de- with the layouts for commercial
the total exports to all South greneracy, which we are danger ventures and they were reluctant
to acquire either as a hotel, or
American countries.
ously close to today”.
Negroes and City M arket Support | In his sermon, he contended the latter purposes, both would
“Even with conditions as they that “Phijladelphia has sunk to have to be remodeled, since ac
are, the city m arkets of the south a new low in allowing the pres comodations in each are limited
are positively affected by the entation of “Strange F ruit”, which to single occupancy and for sep
num erous Negro consumers. In he said he saw at last Saturday’s arate accomodation of males and
1943, for example, the 149,119 matinee “after its n a t u r e was females. They were built for
dorm itories and could only be
colored people of New Orleans drawn to' my attention”.
spent the m ajor portion of their “The play”, he said, “could be useful as adjuncts to the present
$75,000, 000 income in the m arkets construed as being a direct at facilities of Howard university
of that city. In Memphis, a Negro tack upon the Evangelical C hrist or for use by the YMCA or the
population of 121,498 spent a cor ian church. The most im portant YWCA. Only recently, the YWCA
respondingly large part of their experiences of our Christian life acquired additional dorm itory
approxim ately $70,000,000 inebme. are held up to ridicule. Conver space through the removal of a
Similar facts could be presented sion is smeared, salvation is white group from a colored
for the other cities of the south. smeared, salvation is mocked, and neighborhood. Operation as an
adjunct to the present institu
“In the cities of the north where church m embership is a joke.
discrim ination against colored “One of the characters in the tions would serve an area rem ote
people is less severe, the income play — and a rotter, at that — from either of the present insti-
of Negroes and their expenditures ¿peaks of joining the church while 1 tutioins.
for consumers’ goods and services he is drinking. Then, as he is However, in looking over the
are somewhat greater. The 188,- playing the part of a miserable buildings, one New York opera-
843 Negroes of Baltimore, one- sinnet doing one of the lowest acts tor said that too much spate was
fifth of that city’s population in of life, he states that he is going devoted to recreational facilities
1940, owned homes valued at to join the church, and infers that in both buildings to m ake them
$8,598,100. A som ewhat larger he is going to live the decent life profitable from a hotel standpoint.
Negro population in 1942 made This is, of course, a farce”.
Specifications of the properties,
consumer purchase estim ated at After his sermon, Mr. Forney income, m aintenance costs and
$89,800,000.
indicated that he would not only other data concerning them will
“The largest Negro m arket in seek a ban on the play, but would be published and bids solicited
(Continued on Page 2.)
¡lead a campain for stricter cen-¡w ithin a few days.
Battalion Now
Doing Guard Duty
Philadelphia Pasinr Asks Mayor
To Put Ban on "Strange Fruit"
Carver, Slowe
Halls for Sale
Mr. R. A. Lindley, 103 N. Mc-
Millen Street received an intim i
dating letter on Monday of this
week from a Vancouver resident
who signs himself J. C. Conners,
in which he stated in part w hat
would happen to Mr. Lindley if
he w as in Waycross in the state
of Georgia. Previously Mr. L ind
ley had sent a letter to the ed
itor of the Oregonian, daily new s
paper in which he referred to
Portland as the “City of Thorns”.
Conners letter was in answ er to
Mr. Lindley and was mailed to
Mr. Lindley and not the new s
paper.
he original letter sent by Mr.
Lindley follows:
Race Discrimination
To the Editor: Why is it
such a glaring fact that the
people of Portland or "The
Rose City" are so intent on
‘ denying jobs to colored peo
ple? There are thousands of
them willing and able to do
different jobs, but every
time they apply for them
they are told, "I'm sorry, we
want whites." It should be
called "The City of Thorns."
I have several men in my
house who are nice, decent
fellows, who get up every
morning looking in the pa
pers and running all over
the city in quest of jobs,
only to get the same an
swer. That is most discour
aging and when six months
haven't passed since tip
great war was ended to
abolish such an e v tt pnc>
tice.
.
Surely this thing can't
keep on. The people m ust
surely see that if they are
not given jobs soon there
will be an awful big job of
caring for these people and
instead of getting w o r k
done they will be paying
money out of their earnings
for people to stand around
and do nothing. For after all
people have to live and
somebody is going to pay.
We are not asking for
charity or pity. All we ask
is a chance lo earn a decent
living.
R. A. LINDLEY,
103 N. McMillen St.
The intim idating ansker he re
ceived was dated November 23rd
and was mailed from Vancouver,
W ashington on November 24th.
It read:
Just read your article in
today's Oregonian. Who in
Hell brought you out here
anyway. It's a dam cinch
no one outside of Kaiser
sent for you, and if you
happened to be in Way-
crosse. Ga.. you would be
taken care of properly for
signing your nam e to an
article like you wrote.
(signed) J. C. Conners
Vancouver, Wash.
This is not the first tim e that
this J. C. Conners wrote intim i
dating letters. He w r o t e a
threatening letter to the editor
of the Portland Inquirer some
time ago. This letter was read
into the m inutes of the Tax P ay
ers League. It is not k n o w n
w hether J. C. Conners is a man
or a woman or a psuedonym used
to throw the Postal A uthorities
off the track. The first letter
sent by Conners was sent to the
Postal Authorities as this one will
be to. No evidence of any other
letters have been received by
this publication but, if and when
we find others, they will be pub
lished.
Full Employment
Bill Rewritten
WASHINGTON—(ANP)— W ith
the “leak” that the adm inistra
tion’s full-em ploym ent bill has
been rew ritten by House m em
bers Carter Manasco of Alabama,
and W illiam W hittington of Mis
sissippi, liberal forces in tthe na
tion’s capital are saying th a t the
reactionary farm bloc is in the
¿addle.
It is pointed out that Manasco
and W hittington, inhibited by
their fears of deeont wages for
cotton p ie k e rs^ n d dom estic aer-,»
ykndFin -the s J tb . l£ve visu ally
rendered the bill im potent to deal
with unemploym ent.
Coupled w ith the behlnd-the-
scene butchery of the full em
ploym ent bill is back-to-the-states
move of the U. S. Employment
service, liberals are saying. The
first is in process and the lat
ter has been accomplished.
In addition to carrying an in
nocuous cersioi* of full em ploy
ment, the new ly w ritten bill is
believed to include these provi
sions:
1. An annual "economic report”
by the President to congress, set
ting forth his recom m endations
for norm al public w o r k s and
loans. If conditions w arranted,
em ergency public works would be
proposed to help relieve the em
ploym ent slack. This annual re
port would take the place of the
job "budget” proposed in the
original W agner-M urray-Patm an
bills. The original “budget” plan
contem plated attem pted estim ates
in advance of any rise or fall in
em ploym ent w ith recom m enda
tions for federal spending gauged
accordingly.
2. A board of economic advis
ers to assist the President in gath-
(Continued on Page 2.)
Kentucky lo Be First Dixie State
Hit in Equal Education Fight
LEXINGTON, Ky. — (ANP) — be expected in the very near fu
The Negro’s all-out a t t a c k to ture and I cannot see how any
crack Dixie’s unequal jim crow court can do anything other than
educational system is expected to follow the suprem e court’s ruling
in the Gaines case.”
begin in this state.
That prediction was made here He reported th at one librarian
last week by Dr. W. D. Funk- at a Negro college testified that
houser, dean of the graduate less than 25,000 titles were in the
school at the University of K en school library. No college can
tucky, in a report' to the univer be expected to do creditable un
sity faculty on graduate work in dergraduate work, much l e s s
Negro institutions in the south. graduate work, “unless it had at
A dram atic appeal was made on least 25,000 to 30,000 titles in the
Oct. 17 by Dr. R. B. Atwood, presi library,” the librarian said. There
dent of Kentucky State college at is not a single Negro institution
Frankfort, before legislative coun in the U nited States in which a
cil to adm it Negro students to student can secure a doctor’s de
state-supported colleges for pro gree, Dr. Funkhouser added.
fessional and graduate courses, H. L. Donovan, president of the
not available at Negro schools of University of Kentucky, put the
higher learning.
m atter in the hands of state leg
Dr. Funkhouser included in his islators.
report a series of m eetings this “The responsibility for any ac
sum m er in Durham for the states tion along this line lies with the
of North Carolina, M aryland, V ir legislature,” he commented. “It’s
ginia and the District of Colum entirely up to that group."
bia when Negro educators pic M eanwhile, Negro educators
tured by facts and figures the have expressed confidence that
unequal jim crow educational sys the courts will base a favorable
tem in the south.
ruling on the celebrated Gaines
“K entucky is a border state case, which m eans that the state
and is one of the first in which will have to provide equal edu
Negroes will make an attem pt to cational opportunities for Ne
secure admission to w hite insti groes, or throw open the doors
tutions,” he said. "There is no of white tax-supported institu
question but that test cases may tions to Negro students.